Civilized truths, hateful lies? Incivility and hate speech in false information – evidence from fact-checked statements in the US

Digital information settings may not only offer an opportunity structure for democratic deliberation, but also facilitate the occurrence of negative phenomena – such as incivility, hate speech and false information. Even though extant literature has provided theoretical arguments a discursive affinity between or deceptive uncivil speech, we lack empirical evidence on whether how incivility converge. Against this backdrop, rely extensive content analysis fact-checked statements in US (N = 894) to assess what extent different forms are present degrees Our main findings illustrate that partisan attacks, negativity, most likely occur deviates furthest from reality. These help us dissect untruthfulness based their features: Disinformation (goal-directed deception) be distinguished misinformation (unintentionally misleading content) centrality hostility, former.